see also
animal cognition; physical cognition; social cognition
invisible displacement, test of, 177–78
in-your-face attention-getter, 152, 200, 203
irises, 125, 148
Irish setter, 50
Irish terrier, 50
isolation
eavesdropping, with video camera, 291–92
impact on bonding, 268–69
isolation barks, 107
lack of marking and, 116
noise making of dogs and, 118
jackals, 34
Jack Russell, 245
jaguars, 15
joint attention, 58
Kanzi (bonobo), 145n
keyboard use, 145n
Kipling, Rudyard, 119
kisses, dog, 29–31
see also
licking
Koko (gorilla), 273 komondor, 113
Labrador retriever, 53, 127–28, 237–38
language
barks compared with, 105–6
commands.
see
commands
human use of, 26–27, 64, 94
linguistic ability of animals, 94–95, 96–97, 145n
role in memory, 224
vocabulary in, 96–97, 145n
Larson, Gary, 95
laughter, 103–4
learned helplessness, 19n
learned optimism/pessimism, 27–28
learning, 176, 181–83
associative, 10–11, 167–68, 182, 225, 232–33, 289
through demonstration, 186–90
through imitation, 183–86
to obey commands, 182–83, 189–90, 204n, 285–86 from observation, 26–28, 183–90
of umwelt of blind companion, 134–35, 162, 274
see also
training
leg bands, 296n
licking
Elizabethan collar and, 86
functional use of, 29–31
as greeting, 29, 30–31, 65, 247, 272–73
muzzle licking, 30–31
in olfaction, 30–31, 73, 74
to prompt regurgitation by mother, 29–30, 272–73
sonorous mouth licking, 152
urine, 73, 74
of world, 246–47
lifetime, length of, 222n, 264
Linnaean classification, 38n
lizards, vomeronasal organ in, 73
looking.
see
vision
Lorenz, Konrad, 83, 116–17, 141n, 261–62, 272–73
marking
anal sacs in, 84–85, 112, 117
audience and, 117–18
"mark" test of self-awareness, 218–19, 220
scratching ground in, 85
urine in, 22, 76, 82–84, 114–18
markings, 296
marmosets, sniff in, 69
mastiff, 48–49, 50, 221
mating.
see
sexuality
mazes, 144
McClintock, Martha, 73n
memoirs, pet, 119, 225–27
memory, 222–28
associations and, 225
autobiographical memory, 119, 225–27
prodigious human memory, 224
willpower and, 226–27
mimicry, 94
mirror
"mark" test of self-awareness, 218–19, 220
recognition in, 217–20
mirroring, 152–53
mitochondrial DNA, 39–40
moan, 100, 101–2
mongoose
hyena relation to, 34n
marking by, 84
mongrels, 47, 52
monkeys
animal cognition research on, 157
anthropomorphism and, 263n
big-brain hypothesis and, 8–9
bonding and, 267–69
communication of, 91, 94
eyebrows raised in display, 16
eye contact in, 148
in zoos, 158–59
monosodium glutamate, 30
mothers
licking behavior and, 29–30, 272–73
motherese and, 95–96
touch between child and, 267–69
see also
bonding
motion blindness, 132
motion sensitivity, 48, 54, 123–24, 129–32, 167, 244–45, 249, 250–51
movement, forms of, 290–91
mutts
adoption of, 47, 65, 262n, 266–67, 294, 301
muzzles of, 71
temperament of, 294
wolves versus, 44
mutual gaze, 46–47, 139, 146–49, 161, 292–93
muzzle biting, 18–19
muzzle licking, 30–31
Nagel, Thomas, 241–43, 258
naming behavior, 96–97, 98, 295–97
narcolepsy, 51
nasal septum, 74
natural selection, 34, 38–47
neophilia, 178n
neotony, 114, 264
neutering, 295
Newfoundland, 43–44, 48
night vision, 48, 125, 128–30
nonsporting hounds, 49
Norman (Labrador retriever), 237–38
Norwich terrier, 47–48
nose
anatomy of dog, 68–69, 71–75
beagle olfactory cells, 71, 72
of humans, 71
of sheepdog, 71
wet, in dogs, 69, 74–75, 77
see also
odors; olfaction; vomeronasal organ novelty, importance of, 284–85, 288–89
obedience, 182–83, 189–90, 204n, 285–86
see also
right and wrong; training
objectivity, in science, 3–5, 13–14, 27–28
object permanence, 176, 178–79
observation
in animal cognition research, 4–5, 13–14, 27–28, 102n, 145, 147, 148, 161–73
animal observation of humans, 183–90
anthropomorphism and, 14–19
learning from, 26–28, 183–90.
see also
imitation objectivity in scientific, 3–5, 13–14, 27–28 in training process, 60–61
of zoo animals, 4–5, 8, 14–15, 158–59, 216
odors
arousal and, 110
artificial, 25–26, 69, 71, 72, 86, 292
butyric acid and, 20–21, 79
city design and, 86–87
on clothing, 71, 75–76, 77, 78, 85, 244
of dog feet, 85
dog groomers and, 85–86, 292
in experience of time, 72, 77, 78–79, 227–28, 254–56
height of dogs and, 245
human adaptation to, 70–71
of human feet and shoes, 71, 75–76, 78, 135, 244
importance to dogs, 87–88
rump sniffing, 84–85, 86, 87–88
signature odor of humans, 25–26, 74–79, 87–88, 135 smell walks and, 284–85
traveling on air currents, 71, 76–77, 123, 245, 284–85
of urine, 22, 76, 82–84, 114–18
see also
olfaction
olfaction, 67–88
bloodhound ability, 77–78
cells committed to, 69, 71, 72, 73–75
changes in, 169
detection of disease and disorder, 81–82
detection of fear, 79–81
detection of human odors, 20–21, 25–26, 76–77
in dogs, 30–31, 67–88, 116–17, 122
in experience of time, 72, 77, 78–79, 84, 227–28, 254–56
expression of anal sacs, 84–85
genitals and, 75, 76, 87
habituation in, 70–71
in humans, 21–22, 23, 67–68, 72–73, 122
importance to dogs, 87–88
licking in, 30–31, 73, 74
olfactory bulb, 72–73
pheromones and, 73–75, 79–81, 83
physiology of, 69, 71–75
prediction of seizure, 82n
self-awareness and, 219–20
in sharks, 77
signature scent and, 25–26, 74–79, 87–88, 135
smell walks and, 284–85
sniff in.
see
sniff
in ticks, 20–21
in tracking prey, 48, 57n, 76, 77–78
urine marking, 22, 76, 82–84, 114–18
vision connected with, 127–28
see also
nose; odors; sniff; vomeronasal organ
ontogenetic ritualization, 226n
open-mouth display, 108, 110, 201
operant conditioning, 10–11, 189–90
optic nerve, 135–36
optimism, learned, 27–28
orienting reflex, 141
owners
animal observation of, 161–73, 251–52
concept of, 11–12
dog recognition of, 25–26, 29–31
legal relationship with dogs, 11–12
theories about dogs, 3–4
training of dogs and, 10–11, 25–26
oxytocin, 261, 279
see also
hormones
pacing, 291
packs
analogy in training dogs, 57–61
use of term with dogs, 43, 57–61
in wolves, 38, 40, 41, 43, 57–61, 103 pair bond, 260–61
panoramic vision, 124, 127–28
papillon, 43–44
paramecium, 236–37
Pavlov, Ivan, 289
pawedness/handedness, 288
pawing, 152
pecking, 185
pedomorphic dogs, 114
peek-a-boo, 142
Pekingese, 50
peripheral vision, 127–28
personality.
see
temperament
personal space of chickens, 16–17
of dogs, 246–47
of humans, 16–17
"territory marking" and, 83–84
of wolves, 38
pessimism, learned, 27–28
petting dogs, 266–71, 293
Pfungst, Oskar, 164
Pharaoh Hound, 48–49n
pheromones, 73–75, 79–81, 83
phonemes, 105–6
photoreceptors, 48, 126, 127–32, 168
physical cognition
attention in, 144
object displacement/permanence, 176, 177–79
rope task, 44–45
size-awareness in, 220–22
social cognition and, 176–81
tool use, 177
of wolves versus dogs, 44–45
Piaget, Jean, 162–63, 178
pigeons
"psychic powers" of, 165–66
use of time, 213, 215
pigs, slaughterhouse behavior of, 251n
pinna, 92
pit bull, 53n
pitch of sounds made, 93–96, 98–108
play, 196–205
aggression versus, 5, 61–65, 270
attention in, 152–53, 199–205
biting games, 42
cackling laugh in, 103–4
commands during, 171–72
communication in, 1–2, 5–6, 200–205
description of, 1–2, 5–6, 205–6, 277–78
dog love of, 289
between dogs of mismatched size, 1–2, 124, 205–6, 221
of domesticated silver foxes, 37
fetch and, 277–78, 287
function of, 197–98
human-dog, 277–78, 287
objects in, 24–26, 247–50
ritualization of, 198
role in bonding process, 275–79
rolling behavior in, 24, 55, 85, 286
rough-and-tumble, 1–2, 24, 62, 196–98, 200n, 202, 205–6, 221
study of, 196–205
theory of mind and, 196–205
visual streak and ball dogs, 127–28, 287
see also
attention-getter; play signals
play barks, 98–99, 108
play bow, 201, 203, 205
play signals, 199–207, 226
head bow, 201
importance of, 200–201, 289
open-mouth display, 108, 110, 201
play bow, 201, 203, 205
play slap, 103, 201
play slap, 103, 201
Pliny the Elder, 64–65
pointing
as communication, 49, 143, 150–52, 287
gaze following as, 150–52, 154
temporal patterns in, 277–78
polygraph machines, 80, 169
poodle, 42n, 240
posture
antithesis and, 110, 112
as communication, 80–81, 89–90, 108, 109–10, 111, 153 tail and, 111–14
prairie voles, 261
prey, chasing behaviors and, 169–71
primates
animal cognition research on, 4–5, 102n
big-brain hypothesis and, 8–9
problem-solving skills
imitation and, 183–90
intelligence and, 44–45, 175–81
of wolves versus dogs, 180
progressive mutilation, 229
prolactin, 279
prosody, 93–94, 95, 251
protodogs, 42
protodomesticators, 40
"psychic powers,"163–72
animal knowledge of habits versus, 166–72, 251–52
confirmation bias, 169n
in counting behavior of horse, 163–66
of pigeons, 165–66
in spelling behavior of dogs, 167
see also
attention
pug, 40, 50, 112, 127, 221
Pumpernickel (Pump)
adoption of, 65
anecdotes, 4–6, 13, 29, 31, 33, 34, 52, 55, 67, 71, 75, 85, 87, 89, 92, 98, 100–101,
104, 108, 111–12, 113, 114–15, 118–19, 121, 123–24, 132, 135, 139, 166–67,
169–71, 183, 184, 190–91, 196–97, 199, 209, 211, 215, 222–23, 225, 228,
229, 235, 241, 247, 256–57, 259, 271–72, 274, 276, 283–85, 291, 294
described, 3, 47, 299–301
punishment
historical types of, 228–29
scolding in, 149, 232–33
in training process, 60–61, 286
pupil size, 124–25
pups
cuteness of, 264
lack of urine marking, 117
licking behavior of mother, 29–30, 272–73
sounds made by, 101, 102
in wolf packs, 58–59
purebred dogs, 49–50, 51, 71
raincoats, dog, 17–19
raised-leg display, 83, 116, 117–18
see also
urine
raisin toxicity, 33, 34, 34n
rats
big-brain hypothesis and, 8–9
fear contagion in, 80
learned optimism and pessimism, 27–28
sounds made by, 93
use of time, 213, 215
redirected appeasement ceremony (Lorenz), 272–73
reflexes, 141
REM sleep, 213n
reptiles, vomeronasal organ in, 73
rescue dogs, 79, 166, 237–39
retina, 125, 126–32, 135–36, 249
retrieving behavior, 49, 53, 54, 112, 127–28, 154, 287
rewards, in training process, 60–61
rhinoceros, 4–5, 15n
flehmen, 74
urine marking, 84
Rico (border collie), 96–97, 98, 211n
right and wrong, knowledge of, 228–35
rolling behavior, 24, 55, 85, 86, 286
rolling tones, 24
rooting reflex, 141, 269
rope task, 44–45
roses, 22, 72
Rottweiler, 53n
rough-and-tumble play, 1–2, 24, 62, 196–98, 200n, 202, 205–6, 221 rump sniffing, 84–85, 86, 87–88
saccades, 136
Sacks, Oliver, 162
salty taste, 30
San Diego Zoo, 4–5
scavengers, 39, 40, 43, 63
schizophrenia, smell of, 81
sclera, 125
SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus), 212–13
scolding, 149, 232–33
scream, 101
scrub jay, caching behavior of, 226
Seeing Eye dogs, 43, 134–35, 152, 162, 274
seizure prediction, 82n
selection
artificial, 6, 35–37, 41.
see also
domestication natural, 34, 38–47
selective breeding, 40
self-awareness
experience of, 217–22
knowledge of right and wrong, 228–35
"mark" test of, 218–19, 220
olfaction and, 219–20
size and, 220–22
of working dogs, 221–22
self-takedown, 221
sensitive/critical period, 42–43, 222n, 262
separation anxiety, 43, 268n, 271–72, 280
sexuality
courting behavior, 83–84, 277–78
and domestication of silver foxes, 36
flehmen and, 74
flirting and, 277–78
genetic mutations and, 51
genitals and, 75, 76, 87
hormones and, 172
neutering dogs, 295
raised-leg display in, 83, 116, 117–18
of wolves, 38, 41, 58
shake, body, 113–14
shaping behavior, 10–11
shark, olfaction of, 77
shar-pei, 50
sheepdog
early exposure to sheep, 221, 262
"eye" behavior, 287
innate behavioral tendencies, 54
nose of, 71
shepherding behavior.
see
herding behavior
shepherds, 49, 50, 53, 53n, 104
shoes
for dogs, 56
odor of, 71, 75–76, 78, 135, 244
showing, 154
shriek, 103
Siberian husky, 42n, 48, 50, 114, 135
sighing, 27, 153
sight.
see
vision
signature odor, 25–26, 74–79, 87–88, 135
sitting tone, 24
size
big-dog sounds, 102
breed differences, 43–44
height in, 23, 40, 110n, 112, 169–71, 243–45
of objects in relation to dogs, 247–50
recognition of own, 220–22
in rough-and-tumble play, 1–2, 124, 205–6, 221 toy dogs, 49, 290–91
slaughterhouses, 136, 251n
sledding, 169–71
sleep
circadian rhythms and, 88, 212–15
dreaming and, 88, 124, 213, 213n
smelling.
see
nose; odors; olfaction
smile
of chimpanzees, 16
of dogs, 16, 110, 256–58, 273
of dolphins, 16
happiness and, 16, 145 infant imitation of, 143, 173, 277
snarl, 102
sneeze, 68
sniff, 68–71
characterized by ethologists, 69–70, 83–84
description of, 67, 68, 69–70
in dogs, 67, 68–71, 83–88, 116–17
in elephants, 69
in greeting, 75, 76, 84–85, 86, 87–88
in humans, 70–71
in marmosets, 69
rump sniffing, 84–88
in tortoises, 69
types of, 67, 68
wet nose good for, 69, 74–75, 77
see also
nose; odors; olfaction
Snoopy, 226
snuffling, 103
social cognition
animal behavior in zoos, 4–5, 8, 14–15, 15n, 158–59, 216
animal knowledge of humans, 161–73
animal preferences and, 16–17
attention in, 144–45
in detection of fear, 79–81
in domestication of dogs, 38–47
eye contact and, 45–47
linguistic ability of animals, 94–95
packs and, 38, 40, 41, 43, 57–61, 103
physical cognition and, 176–81
play and, 1–2, 5–6, 206–7.
see also
play
"psychic powers" of animals, 163–72
sensitive/critical period of, 43
see also
attention; communication
social panting, 103–4
socks, 244
Sofia (dog), 145n
Sony, 276