The Making of African America (45 page)

21
Calvin B. Holder, “West Indies” in Waters and Eeda, eds.,
The New Americans,
291—93, 299—300, 675—86.

22
Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
243—44; Logan and Deane, “Black Diversity in Metropolitan America,” 4.

23
Arthur,
African Diaspora,
51—55; New York City Department of Planning, “Newest New Yorkers: Immigrant New York in the New Millennium” (2004),
www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/census/nny.shtml
; Marieme O. Daff, “Little Senegal: African in Harlem, Malcolm X Boulevard, America's Dakar” (
www.africultures.com/anglais/article_anglais/44senegal.htm
); Jon D. Holtzman,
NuerJourneys, Nuer Lives: Sudanese Refugees in Minnesota,
2nd ed. (Boston, 2008).

24
Arthur,
African Diaspora,
chap. 6; Agyemang Attah-Poku,
The Socio-Cultural Adjustment Question: The Role of Ghanaian Immigrant Associations in America
(Brookview VT, 1996), chaps. 4—6. For a discussion of “hometown associations,” see Pierre-Louis,
Haitians in New York City.

25
Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
245—46, 252—54.

26
Mary Waters,
Black Identities,
quoted on 47—48 and 57. For a sociological explication of this same phenomena, see Vickerman,
Crosscurrents,
9—12.

27
James R. Grossman, Ann Durkin Keating, and Janice L. Reiff, eds.,
The Encyclopedia
of
Chicago
(Chicago, 2004), 21, 281, 446, 476, 771, 775.

28
Hoerder,
Cultures in Contact,
551; Johnson, “‘What, Then, Is the African American?' ” 84—87.

29
Arthur,
African Diaspora,
chaps. 5—6. On Diallo, see various articles online in the
New York Times
(
www.nytimes.com
).

30
Reimers, Other
Immigrants,
253—54; Rogers, “‘Black Like Who?,' ” 182—83; Vickerman,
Crosscurrents,
chap. 2.

31
Milton Vickerman, “Tweaking a Monolith: The West Indian Immigrant Encounter with ‘Blackness,”' in Foner, ed.,
Islands in the City,
237—56.

32
James T. Campbell,
Middle Passages:African American Journeysto Africa, 1787—2005
(New York, 2006); Penny Von Eschen,
Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz
Ambassadors Play the Cold War
(Cambridge MA, 2004); Robin D. G. Kelley, “‘But a Local Phase of a World Problem': Black History's Global Vision, 1883—1950,”
Journal of American History
86 (1999), 1045—77; Zachary Williams et al., “A History of Black Immigration in the United States” in Rachael Ida Buff, ed.,
Immigrant Rights in the Shadow of Citizenship
(New York, 2008), 171; quoted in
Tampa Tribune,
15 May 1998.

33
Arthur,
African Diaspora,
chap. 5; Holtzman,
NuerJourneys,
117—19.

34
Rogers, “‘Black Like Who?' ”; Louis,
Haitians in New York City,
21—23, 117—34; quoted in Zéphir,
Haitian Immigrants
in
Black America,
53; Rogers, “‘Black Like Who?,”' 165—67, 174—76.

35
Expressing a sense of privilege that residence in the United States provided, a Ghanaian immigrant observed, “I could not afford a car, television, or even a one-bedroom to lay my head at night when I was in Ghana. I drive a good used car, able to educate my children, and I have some money left to remit home. I do made much but even in this status, I earn more than what over 70 per cent of Ghanaians at home earn,” Arthur,
African Diaspora,
78; quoted in Zéphir,
Haitian Immigrants,
70, and
Haitian Immigrants in Black America,
127.

36
Mary C. Waters, “Ethnic and Racial Groups in the USA: Conflict and Cooperation” in Kumar Rupesinghe and Valley Tishkov, eds.,
Ethnicity and Power in the Contemporary World
(London, 1996); Vickerman,
Crosscurrents,
chap. 4.

37
Rogers, “‘Black Like Who?,”' 178, 186—87.

38
Milton Vickerman, “Tweaking a Monolith: The West Indian Immigrant Encounter with ‘Blackness,”' in Foner, ed.,
Islands in the City,
237—56; “Jamaicans: Balancing Race and Ethnicity” in Foner, ed.,
The New Immigrants in New York;
Zéphir,
Haitian Immigrants,
86—94; quoted in Arthur,
African Diaspora, 72—73,
and the
Seattle Post-Intelligencer,
July 20, 2006.

39
Quoted in Rogers, “‘Black Like Who?,”' 178, 163. Rogers was referring to Afro-Caribbeans in New York City but his remarks can easily be extended to the United States at large. Also see Zéphir,
Haitian Immigrants,
chap. 4; Johnson, “‘What, Then, Is the African American?,”' 77—103.

40
Tracie Reddick, “Africans vs. African-Americans: A Shared Complexion Does Not Guarantee Racial Solidarity,”
www.library.yale.edu/~fboateng/akata.htm
; Johnson, “‘What, Then, Is the African American?,' 94—95;
Harvard Crimson,
Mar. 9, 2007;
Journal of Blacks in Higher Education,
www.jbhe.com/news_views/56_race_sensitive_not_helping.html
; for other conflicts over resources, see Rogers, ”‘Black Like Who?' ” Although subject to considerable debate, economists have generally agreed that, at least in the short term, immigration, although not specifically black immigration, “has harm[ed] the earnings and employment of African Americans”: Steven Shulman, ed.,
The Impact of Immigration on African Americans
(New Brunswick NJ, 2004), quoted on xii.

41
Ibid.; and quoted in
New York Amsterdam News,
Feb. 3—9, 2005; Tracie Reddick, “Africans vs. African-Americans: A Shared Complexion Does Not Guarantee Racial Solidarity,”
Seattle Post-Intelligencer,
July 20, 2006.

42
Logan and Deane, “Black Diversity in Metropolitan America,” 4—13; Rogers, “‘Black Like Who?'”; Kusow, “Africa: East” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
291—93, 299—300; Zéphir,
The Haitian Americans,
129—30; Arthur,
African Diaspora,
79; Lynette Clemetson, “For Schooling, A Reverse Emigration to Africa,”
New York Times,
Sept. 4, 2003; Zephir,
Haitian Immigrants,
74—76, quoted in 71.

43
Trica Rose,
Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America
(Hanover NH, 1994), chap. 1—2; Dawn M. Norfleet, “Hip-Hop and Rap” in Mellonee V. Burnim and Portia K. Maultsby, eds.,
African American Music: An Introduction
(New York, 2006), 353—57; Nelson George,
Hip-Hop America
(New York, 1998); Jeff Chang,
Can't Stop, Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation
(New York, 2005) Kelley, “Into the Fire,” 583—90; Fernando Orejueda, “Hip Hop” in William Ferris and Glenn Hinson, eds.,
Encyclopedia of Southern Culture,
forthcoming. I would like to thank Bill Ferris for sharing this reference.

44
Rose, Black Noise; Norfleet, “Hip-Hop and Rap” in Burnim and Maultsby, eds.,
African American Music,
57—68; Nelson George,
Hip-Hop America
(New York, 1998); Chang,
Can't Stop, Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation;
Kelley, “Into the Fire,” 583—90.

45
Rose,
Black Noise;
Norfleet, “Hip-Hop and Rap” in Burnim and Maultsby, eds.,
African American Music,
68—71; Nelson George,
Hip-Hop America
(New York, 1998); Chang,
Can't Stop, Won't Stop:
A
History of the Hip-Hop Generation;
Kelley, “Into the Fire,” 583—90; Orejueda “Hip Hop” in Ferris and Hinson, eds.,
Encyclopedia of Southern Culture,
forthcoming. The antisocial tradition runs deep in African American culture; see especially the story of Stagger Lee, which became a standard of nervous blues musicians. Cecil Brown,
Stagolee Shot Billy
(Cambridge MA, 2003).

46
Rose,
Black Noise,
10—11.

47
Jennifer V. Jackson and Mary E. Cothran, “Black Versus Black: The Relationship Among African, African American and African Caribbean Persons,”
Journal of Black Studies
33 (2003), 576—604.

48
Rogers, ”‘Black Like Who?,“' 171—79, quoted on 178; Arthur,
African Diaspora,
chap. 5, esp. 69—71; Philip Kasinitz,
Caribbean New York: Black Immigrants and the Politics of Race
(Ithaca NY, 1992); Zéphir,
Haitian Immigrants,
78—82. Another student of West Indian immigrants in the United States notes that West Indians are “profoundly uncomfortable dealing with race, because, despite a history of colonialism, their societies socialize them to ignore it”; Vickerman,
Crosscurrents,
ix. 49 Rogers, “Black Like Who?” on people sharing multiple identities, 166—67.

1
Thomas B. Edsall and Mary D. Edsall,
Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics
(New York, 1991); Dan T. Carter,
The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics
(New York, 1995); Mary C. Brennan,
Turning Right in the Sixties: The Conservative Capture of the GOP
(Chapel Hill NC, 1995).

2
For newly arrived Africans' support of Barack Obama, see the Washington Post, July 6, 2008.

3
Barack Obama,
Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance,
2nd ed. (New York, 2004), 27.

4
New York Times,
May 11, 2008; David Mendell,
Obama: From Promise to Power
(New York, 2007), chap. 9, quoted on 131; Ryan Lizza, “Making It: How Chicago Shaped Obama,”
The New Yorker,
July 21, 2008; quoted in David Remnick, “The Joshua Generation: Race and the Campaign of Barack Obama,”
The New Yorker,
Nov. 17, 2008.

5
New York Times,
Aug. 29, 2004.

6
New York Times,
Feb. 2 and 11, 2007; also see
New York Times,
Jan. 25, 2007;
Newsweek,
July 16, 2007; for Crouch's statement, New York
Daily News,
Nov. 2, 2006.

7
For the barbershop banter on Obama, see Darryl Pinckney, “Dreams from Obama,”
New York Review of Books
55 (Mar. 6, 2008), 41-46.

8
Louis Chude-Sokei, “Redefining ‘Black': Obama's Candidacy Spotlights the Divide between Native Black Culture and African Immigrants,”
Los Angeles Times,
Feb. 18, 2007.

9
Debra J. Dickerson, “Colorblind: Barack Obama Would Be the Great Black Hope in the Next Presidential Race—If He Were Actually Black,” Jan. 22, 2007,
Salon
(
www.salon.com/opinion/feature/2007/01/22/obama/
); also Debra Dickerson interviewed by Stephen Colbert,
The Colbert Report,
Feb. 8,
2
007.
http://www.colbertnation.com/the-colbert-report-videos/81955/february-08-2007/debra-dickerson?videoId=81955
.

10
Dickerson, “Colorblind,”
Salon,
Jan. 22, 2007.

11
Louis Chude-Sokei, “Redefining ‘Black,'”
Los Angeles Times,
Feb. 18, 2007.

12
Charlie Rose, interview with Barack Obama, Oct. 19, 2006 (
http://www.charlierose.com/shows/2006/10/19/1/an-hour-with-senator-barack-obama
).

13
Dickerson, “Colorblind,”
Salon,
Jan. 22, 2007.

14
Quoted in Obama,
Dreams from My Father,
76, 104.

15
New York Times,
March 18, 2008.

17
Ibid
.

Abbott, Robert

Abuza, Sophie

Africa

African Americans' ignorance of

African Americans' journeys to

as cultural catchall

fluidity of nationalities of

free blacks' migration to

immigration from, late-twentieth-century. See fourth migration

Loyal Blacks' return to

manumission in

Middle Passage from. See Middle Passage

political unrest in

slavery in

slave-trading states in

African American, shunning of name

African Americans

American born.
See
American-born blacks

as closed population

culture, creation and recreation of

as disproportionately at bottom of society

divisions among

elite. See elite blacks/Old Settlers

foreign-born proportion

free black.
See
free blacks

history of.
See
history, African American

idioms of pluralism and

migrations by.
See
migrations, African American

movement, importance to

native born.
See
American-born blacks

Northern.
See
Northern blacks

other Americans and

place, importance to

politics of

self-identity.
See
identity/self-identity

slavery-to-freedom narrative, relevance to

Southern.
See
Southerners, black

unification of

unique experience of

African descent, immigrants of .
See also
African immigrants; Caribbean immigrants;
specific groups

age makeup of

American-born blacks, ignorance of

American-born blacks and, relationship between