The Mind and the Brain (49 page)

purposefully alter the response contingencies of their own TANs
: Schwartz, J. M. 1999. A role for volition and attention in the generation of new brain circuitry: Toward a neurobiology of mental force. In: Libet, B., Freeman, A., & Sutherland, K. (Eds.)
The volitional brain: Towards a neuroscience of free will
. Thorverton, U.K.: Imprint Academic.

two output pathways: one direct and one indirect
: Baxter, L. R., Jr., Clark, E. C., Iqbal, M., & Ackermann, R. F. 2001. Cortical-subcortical systems in the mediation of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Model
ing the brain’s mediation of a classic “neurosis.” In: Lichter, D. G., & Cummings, J. L. (Eds.)
Frontal-subcortical circuits in psychiatric and neurological disorders
. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 207–230. “
worry circuit
”: Baxter, L. R., Jr., Schwartz, J. M., et al. 1992. Caudate glucose metabolic rate changes with both drug and behavior therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Archives of General Psychiatry
, 49, pp. 681–689.

“streams of thought and motivation”:
Graybiel & Rauch, 2000.

what I came to call Brain Lock:
Schwartz, J. M., & Beyette, B. 1997.
Brain lock: Free yourself from obsessive-compulsive behavior.
New York: HarperCollins.

anterior cingulate:
Bush, G., Luu, P., & Posner, M. I. 2000. Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex.
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4
, pp. 215–222.

Researchers at Massachusetts General Hospital:
Breiter, H. C., Rauch, S. L., et al. 1996. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 53
, pp. 595–606; Rauch, S. L., Jenike, M. A., et al. 1994. Regional cerebral blood flow measured during symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder using oxygen 15–labeled carbon dioxide and positron emission tomography.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 51
, pp. 62–70.

Nyanaponika Thera:
Nyanaponika Thera, 1973.

Ludwig von Mises, who defined
valuing: Von Mises, L. 1962.
The ultimate foundation of economic science: An essay on method
. Kansas City, Kans.: Sheed Andrews & McMeel.

significantly diminished metabolic activity
: Schwartz, J. M., Stoes-sel, P.W., Baxter, L. R., Jr., et al. 1996. Systematic changes in cerebral glucose metabolic rate after successful behavior modification treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Archives of General Psychiatry
, 53, pp. 109–113.

Benazon of Wayne State
: Benazon, N. R., Ager, J., & Rosenberg, D. R. 2002. Cognitive behavior therapy in treatment-naïve children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: An open trial.
Behavior Research and Therapy, 40
, p. 529–539.

William James posed the question:
Meyers, G. E. (Ed.) 1992. Psychology: Briefer course. In:
William James Writings 1878–1899.
New York: Library of America, p. 417.

C
HAPTER
T
HREE

lasting language deficit
: Ratey, J. J. 2000.
A user’s guide to the brain
. New York: Pantheon, p. 270.

to process visual information instead
: Eliot, Lise. 1999.
What’s going on in there? How the brain and mind develop in the first five years of life
. New York: Bantam, p. 250.

congenitally deaf people
: Bavelier, D., & Neville, H. J. 2002. Cross-modal plasticity: where and how?
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
, 3(6), pp. 443–452.

In their breakthrough experiment
: Von Melchner, L., Pallas, S. L., Sur, M. 2000. Visual behaviour mediated by retinal projections directed to the auditory pathway.
Nature
, 404, pp. 871–875.

“the animals ‘see’”
: Merzenich, M. 2000. Seeing in the sound zone.
Nature
, 404, pp. 820–821.

as a cause of behavioral improvements:
Van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. 2000. Neural consequences of environmental enrichment.
Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1,
pp. 191–198.

strengthened their synaptic connections:
Robertson, I. H., & Murre, J. M. J. 1999. Rehabilitation of brain damage: Brain plasticity and principles of guided recovery.
Psychological Bulletin, 125,
pp. 544–575.

molecular changes:
Kandel, E R. 1998. A new intellectual framework for psychiatry.
American Journal of Psychiatry,
155(4), pp. 457–469.
an average of 2,500 of these specialized junctions, or synapses:
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. 1999.
The scientist in the crib: Minds, brains and how children learn.
New York: William Morrow, p. 186.

100 trillion
—
synapses:
Ibid., p. 181.

About half the neurons that form in the fetal brain die before the baby is born:
Ratey, 2000, p. 26.

1.8 million synapses per second:
Eliot, 1999, p. 27.

20 billion synapses are pruned every day:
Ibid., p. 32.

They literally could not hear any difference:
Gopnik, Meltzoff & Kuhl, 1999, p. 103.

by twelve months they could not:
Ibid., p. 107.

rarely learn to speak it like a native:
Ibid., p. 192.

forms millions of connections every day:
Ibid., p. 1.

in the wilds of New York City:
Ibid., p. 182.

all of the 100 million neurons of the primary visual cortex form:
Eliot, 1999, p. 204.

10 billion per day:
Ibid.

visual acuity has improved fivefold:
Maurer, D., Lewis, T. L., Brent, H. P., & Levin, A.V. 1999. Rapid improvement in the acuity of infants after visual input.
Science, 286
, pp. 108–109.

sees the world almost as well as a normal adult:
Sireteanu, R. 1999.

Switching on the infant brain.
Science, 286
, pp. 58–59.

“eliminate addressing errors”:
Shatz, C. J. 1992. The developing brain.
Scientific American, 267
, pp. 62–67.

strikes about 1 baby in 10,000:
Sireteanu, 1999, p. 60.

the brain never develops the ability to see normally:
Ibid., p. 59.

“visual input was focused on the retina”:
Maurer, 1999, p. 108.

as well as normal language development:
Sireteanu, 1999, p. 61.

led by Elizabeth Sowell:
Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P.M., Holmes, C. J., Jernigan, T. L., Toga, A. W. 1999. In vivo evidence for post-adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions.
Nature Neuroscience, 2
, pp. 859–861.

increased through age eleven or twelve
: Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., Paus, T., Evans, A. C., Rapoport, J. L. 1999. Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study.
Nature Neuroscience
, 2, pp. 861–863.

“In adult centres”
: In Lowenstein, D.H. & Parent, J.M. 1999. Brian, heal thyself.
Science
, 283, pp. 1126–1127.

“We are still taught”
: Ibid. p. 1126.

C
HAPTER
F
OUR

As a student at Ohio State
: Guillermo, K. S. 1983.
Monkey business: The disturbing case that launched the animal rights movement
. Washington, D.C.: National Press Books, p. 32.

bought at a toy store:
Guillermo, 1983, p. 25.

The saga of the Silver Spring monkeys:
for an excellent and concise account of the case, see Fraser, Caroline. 1993. The raid at Silver Spring.
The New Yorker, 69
, p. 66.

In 1895 Sherrington:
Reprinted in Denny-Brown, D. (Ed.) 1940. Selected writings of Sir Charles Sherrington. New York: Harper & Bros. pp. 115–119.

Reflecting on the 1895 results:
Sherrington, C.S. 1931. Hughlings Jackson Lecture.
Brain, 54
, pp. 1–28.

By 1947:
Sherington, 1947, pp. xxi–xxiii.

“A negative reinforcer”:
Skinner, B.F. 1974.
About Behaviorism.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, p. 47.

electric shock that lasted up to 3.5 seconds:
Taub, E. 1980. Somatosensory deafferentation research with monkeys: Implications for rehabilitation medicine. In Ince, L. P. (Ed.) Behavioral psychology in rehabilitation medicine. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, pp. 371–401.

“was to be of long duration, if necessary”:
Ibid., p. 374.

the monkey uses it:
Taub, E. 1977. Movement in nonhuman primates deprived of somatosensory feedback.
Exercise and Sports Sciences Reviews, 4,
pp. 335–374.

“except the most precise”:
Ibid., p. 368.

“potentially useful”:
Ibid., p. 342.

“major difficulties in carrying out deafferentation experiments with monkeys”:
Ibid., p. 343.

six out of eleven fetuses died:
Ibid., p. 359.

“are not the inevitable consequences of deafferentation”:
Guillermo, 1983, p. 133.

“let the monkeys go?”:
Kilpatrick, J. 1986. Jailed in Poolesville.
The Washington Post,
May 12, A15.

the fifteen surviving monkeys:
Dajer, T. 1992. Monkeying with the brain.
Discover, 13
, p. 70.

“had been through hell and back”:
Ibid.

when they were three or four years old:
Pons, T. P., Garraghty, P. E., Ommaya, A. K., Kaas, J. H., Taub, E., & Mishkin, M. 1991. Massive cortical reorganization after sensory deafferentation in adult macaques.
Science, 252
, pp. 1857–1860.

“a couple of millimeters”:
Ibid., p. 1857.

Paul stopped eating:
Goldstein, A. A. 1990. Silver Spring monkey undergoes final experiment.
The Washington Post,
January 22, E3.

rejected the advice
: Dajer, 1992.

held up experiments on the seven surviving monkeys
: Barnard, N. D. 1990. Animal experimentation: The case of the Silver Spring monkeys.
The Washington Post
, February 25, B3.

“euthanized for humane reasons”
: Sullivan, L. W. 1990. Free for all: Morality and the monkeys.
The Washington Post
, March 17, A27.
was denied on April 12, 1991
: Okie, S. S., & Jennings, V. 1991. Rescued animals killed: Animal rights group defends euthanasia.
The Washington Post
, April 13, Al.

he never awoke
: Ibid.

“advantageous to study the Silver Spring monkeys”
: Suplee, C. 1991. Brain’s ability to rewire after injury is extensive; “Silver Spring monkeys” used in research.
The Washington Post
. June 28, A3.

C
HAPTER
F
IVE

“a distinct and different essence”:
Penfield, W. 1975.
The mystery of the mind
. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, p. 55, 62.
chapter on habit:
James, 1983, p. 110.

In 1912 T. Graham Brown and Charles Sherrington:
Graham Brown, T., & Sherrington, C. S. 1912. On the instability of a cortical point.
Proceedings of Royal Science Society of London, 85B
, pp. 250–277.

S. Ivory Franz compared movement maps:
Franz, S. I. 1915. Variations in distribution of the motor centers.
Psychological Review, Monograph Supplement 19
, pp. 80–162.

Sherrington himself described “the excitable cortex”:
Leyton, A. F. S., & Sherrington, C. S. 1917. Observations on the excitable cortex of the chimpanzee, orang-utan and gorilla.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology, 1
, pp. 135–222.

Karl Lashley, a former colleague of Franz
: Lashley, K. S. 1923. Temporal variation in the function of the gyrus precentralis in primates.
American Journal of Physiology 65
, pp. 585–602.

“plasticity of neural function”
: Lashley, K. S. 1926. Studies of the cerebral function of learning.
Journal of Comparative Neurology
4, pp. 1–58.

remodeled continually by experience
: Merzenich, M. M., & Jenkins, W. M. 1993. Cortical representations of learned behaviors. In: Andersen, P. et al. (Eds.)
Memory concepts
. New York: Elsevier, pp. 437–454.

Donald Hebb postulated coincident-based synaptic plasticity:
Hebb, D. O. 1949.
The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory.
New York: John Wiley.

the great Spanish neuroanatomist Ramón y Cajal:
DeFelipe, J., & Jones, E. G. (Eds.) 1988.
Ramón y Cajal Santiago: Cajal on the cerebral cortex: An annotated translation of the complete writings.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

auditory cortex:
Disterhoft, J. F., & Stuart, D. K. 1976. Trial sequence of changed unit activity in auditory system of alert rat during conditioned response acquisition and extinction.
Journal of Neurophysiology,
39(2), pp. 266–281.

“paw cortex”:
Kalaska, J., & Pomeranz, B. 1979. Chronic paw denervation causes an age-dependent appearance of novel responses from forearm in “paw cortex” of kittens and adult cats.
Journal of Neurophysiology, 42,
pp. 618–633.

amputating a raccoon’s fifth digit:
Rasmusson, D. D. 1982. Reorganization of raccoon somatosensory cortex following removal of the fifth digit.
Journal of Comparative Neurology, 10
, pp. 313–326.