Why Homer Matters (10 page)

U re u re na-nam

Gi re gi re na-nam

Mu re mu re na-nam

 

In those days, now it was in those days,

In those nights, now it was in those nights,

In those years, now it was in those years

As far back as you can reach, poets have been looking back, their poetry living in the gap that opens between now and then. Another song, from Ur in Iraq, written down at about the same time, instructs the singer to

attend to what is old, and not allow it to be neglected.

Let nothing be neglected in practice,

Let him apply himself to the art of singing

Let the scribe stand by and catch the songs in his handwriting

Let the singer stand by and speak to the scribe from the songs

So that they will be made to last in the scribal college

So that none of my praise-song should perish

So that none of my words should be dropped from the tradition.

This song is what Melesigenes, Homer's hidden name, actually means. You might think of Homer as the skilled reteller of his people's stories. But he is more than that; the poems are the passed baton itself, ancient meaning enshrined in the remembered word.

One more story, often repeated in the fictional biographies of him that were written throughout antiquity, hints at Homer's unfittedness for the ordinary world. It exists in many versions, but the most articulate has survived in a manuscript transcribed in the eleventh century
AD
and now in the great royal library in the Escorial outside Madrid.

Homer is at the end of his life, sitting on the beach on the Cycladean island of Ios, after a life of traveling and singing his poems in many places in the Greek world. This is not his home. As he sits there, alone and blind, he hears some fishermen coming up the beach toward him. They have been at sea, and Homer calls out to them: “Fishermen from Arcadia [it is unexplained why it should be Arcadia in the Peloponnese when he is in the Cyclades], have we caught anything?” There is something charming, or perhaps self-ingratiating, in that “we.” But they reply unkindly. “All that we caught we have left behind and all that we missed we carry.” By which they mean that their fishing had been useless, but as they sat out at sea with nothing to do, they searched each other's bodies for lice. Those lice they had caught, they killed and threw into the sea; those they missed were still on them in their clothes.

It was a joke, a riddle, a tease for a blind old man, but he didn't understand it, and, crushed by the loneliness and depression that came in the wake of that failure to comprehend, he died on Ios, where he was buried under an epitaph he had written himself.

Here the earth conceals that sacred head,

The setter-in-beautiful-order [
kosmitora
] of heroic men,

the godly Homer.

According to that much-repeated story, it was the triviality of the joke, a ridiculing of incapacity, even a lack of nobility in others, that finally killed him. This is Homer as the Great Outsider, blind, from beyond our ken, the figure who does not belong in the world where everyone knows everyone else, the man who has yet to enter the restaurant or the drawing room. He is outside our normality, scarcely even aware of the merry din within, with an austerity about him, a grandeur and an urgent, other reality.

Homer—allied to his neighbor and contemporary Isaiah, another great speaker of wisdom, whose dates and identity also stretch across many generations from at least 1500 to 600
BC
—is the archetype from which every great seer is descended: he is Lear on the heath, Rousseau in a reverie on his island in the Lac de Bienne, the Ancient Mariner who waylays the wedding guest at the bridegroom's door, but who will never enter that feast. Homer exists in his other world, almost unknowably separate from us in time and space, a realm whose distance allows ideas of transcendence to develop around him. His distance from us is itself an imaginative space which his own greatness expands to fill.

This is no modern effect; it was the effect Homer had on the ancient Greeks, as a voice from the distant past, even a voice from the silence, the voice of greatness untrammeled by any connection with our present mundanities. Homer doesn't describe the world of heroes; he
is
the world of heroes. As his epitaph said, he made their
kosmos
, a word which in Greek can mean “order,” “world,” “beauty” and “honor.” It is used in the
Iliad
when the commanders set their men in order for battle. It is used to describe the order in which a poet sets the elements of his tale. Those qualities are all different dimensions of one thing. Everything one might associate with the heroic—nobility, directness, vitality, scale, unflinching regard for truth, courage, adventurousness, coherence—is an aspect of the cosmic and all of it is what “Homer” means.

 

5 • FINDING HOMER

It seems clear, from the kind of Greek in which the Homeric poems are written, that the main text preserved by the Alexandrians came from Athens, where Homer could be heard almost daily, in recitals by rhapsodes, professional artists who strung together choice passages from the epics, learning by heart parts of the inherited text and, in a way not entirely approved of by the traditionalists, selling their services for dinner parties or entertainments. Homer was also used as a manual in school, the poems treated as tales of great men and women, of nobility in crisis, and of the choices people must make when faced with the deepest challenges of their lives. Homer for classical Athens was an encyclopedia of moral choice.

The Homeric poems were also performed with enormous elaboration at the quadrennial festival of the Panathenaia, where, at least according to Eustathius, a twelfth-century Byzantine bishop of Thessalonica, the reciters of the
Odyssey
wore sea-purple and of the
Iliad
earth-red costumes, “the purple on account of Odysseus's wanderings at sea, the red on account of the slaughter and bloodshed at Troy.” If the
Odyssey
men were soaked in the royal purple dye of the Phoenicians and those of the
Iliad
in the blood of the heroes, nothing could be clearer about the role Homer played in classical Athens's idea of itself. At their most holy and self-conscious moment, the Athenians gathered for total immersion in the Homeric stories, drinking up the tales from which most of the great tragedies drew their plots and characters, thinking of Homer as the source of what they were.

A clan of reciters from Chios on the eastern side of the Aegean, calling themselves the Homeridae, claimed to be Homer's descendants and to have his precious poems in manuscript handed down to them by the great man, their ancestor. Whether there is any truth in that claim is unknown, but, under the Athenian surface, the main constituent of the Greek in which the epics are written is Ionic, which was spoken in Chios and other parts of western Anatolia. And there is an early piece of evidence for Chios in the so-called
Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo
, written in Homeric hexameters, when the singer himself says:

Remember me in after time whenever any one of the men on earth, a stranger who has seen and suffered much, comes here and asks of you: “Who do you think, girls, is the sweetest singer that comes here, and in whom do you most delight?” Then answer, each and all of you, with one voice: “He is a blind man, and lives in rocky Chios: his songs are forever supreme.” As for me, I will carry your fame as far as I roam over the earth to the well-placed cities of man, and they will believe also; for indeed this thing is true.

The
Iliad
also knows that country, not only the shape of the land around Troy but the habits of the wind, the form of islands and the nature of the sea there. If Homer needs to turn for a comparison to a specific place, the choice he usually makes is there too.

*   *   *

Chios lies only seven miles off the Turkish coast. Its dry limestone gorges push deep into its mountains, and, on the bench of flat arable land beside the sea, acre after acre is covered in olive groves, vineyards and the dark, irregular mastic bushes, the source of a clear chewable gum, much valued in antiquity.

The huge harbor at Chios town is almost empty of shipping now—a few yachts, a ferry, one or two container ships—but is still surrounded by the cafés on the port side, the banging of dominoes on tables, the bales of stuff awaiting collection. Behind them are the crumbling neoclassical villas of the Chiote merchant class, who in the nineteenth century made their fortunes trading around the Mediterranean. Chios is what it always has been: a commercial island, outward-looking—there are still some powerful shipowning families here—and with its foundations resting on the products of the earth, the red wine, loved by Virgil, famous across the whole Mediterranean for its blackness, and the pungent, peppery green island oil.

Far to the south of Chios town, a rare and extraordinary ghost of the Homeric world can be recovered. A narrow road curls its way down the length of the island. Drought is all around you, a blazing sky and burningly bright rocks. In among the rocks are the cisterns, the beautiful dark and buried places of cool and conservation, an eye of water at their heart, roofed in stone, protected from the sun. In a landscape of such exposure and harshness, the cistern seems like the guarantee of continuity.

All this defines a dry world. It doesn't rain in Chios from the beginning of June until the end of October. What rain has fallen in the winter sinks into the ground and emerges from the rock reservoirs as springs. There the soil gathers, and the fertility builds in a landscape that is otherwise bones. The result is a kind of sharpness, superdefinition, a world polarized between the inhabited and the bare, the habitable and the desolate.

In places like this, the growing of human sustenance can only be governed by the presence of water. Where the springs (
vryses
in modern Greek) emerge is where the vegetable gardens are. “I am going to the springs” means “I am going to the gardens.” The roots of that word stretch far back into ancient Greek, from
bruein
, which when it describes water means “to gush out,” “to bubble up,” “to spring.” But more than that,
bruein
means “to be full to bursting,” “to swell,” “to abound,” “to be luxuriant,” “to teem with produce.” It is the verb of emergent life.

Beyond the gardens full of grapes and figs, pomegranates, plums and blackberries, those miraculous concentrations of sugar and juice in the damp corners of the island, often away from houses, the dry country stretches, the world of drought in which everything that grows infiltrates its roots between the rocks and is defended against the grazing and browsing teeth of the animals that would devour it. The leaves that survive are either bitter or armored in thorns. Even the thorns are branched, thorns with thorns on them. Settlement here cannot choose to dispose itself carelessly as it can in a temperate or wooded country. Life must be concentrated: the city, the village, the gathered place is a necessary response to a landscape in which life is thin on the ground.

Almost at the southern tip of the island, Emporio is little more than a scatter of one or two buildings and a taverna, a stub of a quay at which the fishing boats are tied up, a looped horseshoe of a harbor, a gray beach on which the Aegean laps. Its name means “the trading center,” the emporium, which may also have been the name of this small settlement in antiquity. Here, in June 1952, came two of the great men of Homeric studies in the second half of the twentieth century: a young English archaeologist, John Boardman, then deputy director of the British School at Athens, with the young architect Michael Ventris, the man who would soon decipher Linear B, the written language of Mycenaean Greece. They walked up from the harbor—“a well-girt man carrying nothing in his hands can today reach the acropolis from the harbour side in twenty minutes without serious loss of breath”—and high above the valley, on top of a dry, conical hill overlooking the little harbor, they found an ancient settlement, a rocky citadel, heavily walled against raiding pirates, the workmanship of the masonry, Boardman reported, “wretched throughout.”

It was no great city but a rather poor and abandoned village, probably built in about 800
BC
. Outside the acropolis walls there remain some small, stepped and paved, walkable streets between one- or two-roomed houses. There are stables and granaries beside them. The scale is domestic, and because nothing was built here later, everything is clear on the ground, looking much as it did when abandoned in 600
BC
. The tall white spires of the asphodels glow on the stony, lizardy hillsides. Inside the acropolis walls there is a small temple to Athene (Boardman and Ventris found little votive shields in there, given by fighting men to the warlike goddess) and a
megaron
, a large columned room about sixty feet long and twenty wide, a gathering hall, with the stone bases of three wooden columns down its center. Perhaps eighty people could have met here. It is not unlike a Saxon or Viking mead hall, in which
Beowulf
or the sagas would have been heard or sung. It is the great house of the settlement, the only one inside the acropolis walls, and with a commanding view from its columned porch down across the hill to the harbor below. Boardman found little inside, a few pieces of pottery with a “heavy cream slip,” the handle of a wine jug, but stand in here now and you can start to feel your way toward the Homeric world of the eighth century.

Beyond the lee of the island, the Aegean sparkles under the north wind. On the far shore, gray mountains step back into the Asian mainland—a promise of scale and richness outside the constraints of island life. The eighth-century sea is full of threat, and even in the sunshine, as cigarette smoke disappears in the brilliance of the light, Emporio feels carefully held back, marginal, defensive. It is cleverly designed so that the harbor can be seen from the acropolis, but the acropolis is almost invisible from the harbor. You can watch the people down there in the taverna, where the fish are smoking on the griddles, and they will not know.